Thesis Review

Methodology

The methodology of this research involves an analytical study of the religious higher education systems of Muslims in Kerala and Java, Indonesia, followed by a comparative analysis of both systems. The research specifically focuses on the traditional institutions developed by Muslim communities to prepare their Ulama for the reproduction and dissemination of religious knowledge. In particular, it examines the Pallidarss in Kerala and its counterpart in Java.

The research aims to understand the similarities and differences between the Islamic educational traditions in these two regions. It surveys the present scenario and the transformations that have occurred in these communities since the onset of the 20th century. The study is designed to shed light on how Islamic life and religious discourses in both Kerala and Java resemble one another and where the differences originate.

The researcher hopes that this study will significantly contribute to the broader discourse on Islamic education in South Asia and beyond. By providing a comprehensive understanding of the traditional Islamic higher education systems in these regions and their evolution over time, this study aims to open doors for more in-depth studies in the future.

Sources

The sources used for this research include studies and works by various scholars who have explored Islamic education and the role of ‘Ulama in Muslim societies. Specifically, the research references Robinson’s work on the grand legacy of Islamic schooling and its influence on the nature of Islamic religiosity in the sub-continent. Additionally, it draws on Metcalf’s detailed study of the grand Islamic institute at Deoband and its impact on Islamic life in the Indian sub-continent, including how the Deobandi ‘Ulama adapted to changes and defended against colonial rule. Furthermore, Usha Sanyal’s exploration of the Barelwi movement, detailing the career and influence of its scholars, is also utilised. These sources provide a historical and analytical foundation for understanding the traditional Islamic education systems in Kerala and Java, Indonesia.

Review of the Chapters:

Chapter 1

Chapter I on Islamic education and scholastic intellectualism explores the crucial role of the Indian Ocean in promoting cultural exchange and trade, facilitating the spread of Islam in South India and Southeast Asia during the 12th and 13th centuries. Arab missionaries, scholars, and Sufi mystics played key roles in converting local rulers, driven by economic and political motivations. The interconnectedness of Indian Ocean communities is highlighted, with emphasis on the Hadhrami Arab Diaspora’s influence.

The chapter compares Islamic higher education in Kerala and Java, Indonesia, and discusses the arrival of Islam in Kerala’s coastal cities in the first Hijra century. It also examines Nagore’s historical context, renowned for the dargah of Sufi master Shahul Hamid Naguri, and traces its roots to a Buddhist shrine linked to Javanese and Sumatran traders. Historical accounts by travelers like Abd-er-Razzak and Vasco da Gama provide insights into the region’s trade dynamics and the origins of the Marakkayars of Tamil Nadu.

The later part of the chapter looks into the intellectual reform efforts and contributions of Islamic scholars in Southeast Asia, emphasizing the integration of Sufism with Sharia-based practices. It highlights scholarly networks and educational centers in Malabar, and the influence of the Makhdum family on Mappila Muslims. The significance of Sufism among Hadhrami Sayyids and their alignment with orthodox Islam is noted, influenced by scholars like Al-Ghazali.

Scholarly networks in Makkah and Medina in the 17th and 18th centuries were crucial in transmitting Islamic knowledge. Key figures like Al Barwaji and Ahmad al-Qushashi shaped religious life in Southeast Asia and East Africa. Sheikh Zainuddin II of Kerala is highlighted for his extensive writings and anti-colonial efforts. The Hadhrami tradition’s rituals and leadership roles of Alawi Sayyids in South India and Southeast Asia are examined, promoting a moderate Sufism aligned with orthodox beliefs.

Chapter I discusses Sheikh Zainuddin’s travels for Islamic studies and his role in establishing Ponnani as a centre for religious education. His son, Zainuddin Makhdum II, continued his legacy, significantly spreading Islamic knowledge in Kerala and beyond, connecting historical, intellectual, and religious threads in the Indian Ocean region.

Chapter 2

Chapter II of the document titled “Islam Observed and Discussed” critically examines the theological differences among Kerala Muslims. The chapter aims to provide a brief overview of these differences to facilitate a better understanding of the religious higher education system and the nature of the transmission and reproduction of Islamic knowledge in Kerala.

The chapter builds on the intellectual legacy and scholastic background discussed in the first chapter, which shaped the mode and undercurrents of Islamic higher education in both Kerala and Indonesia. It highlights that Islamic higher learning centres in Kerala are often aligned with specific theological positions, and the curriculum and subsequent outcomes are influenced by these theological frameworks .

The analysis of existing Muslim groups in India by Metcalf and the generalization of divisions among Muslims by Ahmed are referenced to provide a clearer picture of Islam as observed and discussed in India or South Asia. Although these analyses do not fully apply to Kerala Muslims, they offer useful general observations. The chapter traces the intellectual base of Kerala Muslims and their evolution from the 7th century, when Islam first appeared in the southwestern coastal areas of India, to the present age. Research indicates that Kerala Muslims maintained their ASWAJA orthodoxy until the early 20th century, with minimal impact from ideological conflicts that emerged in other regions of the Islamic world. The only notable exception was the arrival of a sayyid from Persia, who was accused of Shiism and propagating a fake Sufi order.

The chapter also touches upon the broader context of Indian Muslims, who are not homogeneous in their theological beliefs, perceptions, and rituals. The divisions among Indian Muslims generally fall into four categories: three groups of traditionalists (Deobandis, Barelwis, and Ahl-e-Hadith) and one group of modernists, which can be further divided into religious modernists and secularists. Despite these divisions, all groups consider those who profess that ‘Allah is the only one God and Muhammad is his last prophet’ as Muslims unless they deny any compulsory provision of Islam, like daily prayers. This criterion is used to consider Shiites as Muslims, while Ahmadiyya and Bahaism are regarded as non-Muslims in general Muslim discourses. However, accusations of infidelity or the process of takfir (labelling someone as an infidel) are rampant among these main groups.

Chapter II thoroughly examines the theological differences among Kerala Muslims, situating them within the broader context of Indian and South Asian Islam. It underscores the influence of specific theological positions on Islamic higher education in Kerala and highlights these theological differences’ historical and contemporary dynamics.

Chapter 3

Chapter III provides an in-depth examination of the theological and ideological differences among Muslims in Java, Indonesia, focusing on the classifications of Abangan, Santri, and Prijaji identified by Geertz. The chapter highlights the political orientations of the Santri and the evolution of religious expressions among Muslims in Java, emphasising the importance of understanding the diverse religious practices and identities within the Muslim community in Java.

The chapter discusses the distinctions between traditionalist and modernist Muslims in Indonesia, particularly focusing on the organizations and movements representing each group. Traditionalists are more open to cultural and artistic expressions within Islam, while modernists are more rigid in their interpretation of Islamic texts. The debates around ijtihad (independent reasoning) and taqlid (adherence to established interpretations) are highlighted, with modernists advocating for ijtihad and traditionalists emphasising taqlid.

Further, the chapter discusses the debates between traditionalists and reformists regarding translating the Quran and delivering Friday sermons in local languages. Traditionalists argue for Arabic, while modernists support the use of vernacular languages. Controversies also exist regarding rituals after death, with a study suggesting that taqlid is not due to intellectual stagnation but a desire for uniform rules, thereby limiting the discretionary power of legal officials.

The chapter also mentions Hasbullah’s establishment of an organization for traditionalist Muslims to defend their faith from modernist critiques. It discusses the roles of influential organizations like NU (Nahdlatul Ulama) and Muhammadiyah in Indonesian Islamic politics and the emphasis of Persatuan Islam (Persis) on the Quran and Sunnah as sources of religious values. Arab organizations like Al-Irsyad and Jamiyat Khairiya are noted for representing conservative viewpoints among the Arab community in Indonesia.

Indonesia’s reform and revivalist movements utilized various vehicles such as education, mass Muslim organizations, and the press to spread their ideas. Organizations like Sarekat Islam, Muhammadiyah, and Nahdlatul Ulama played significant roles in promoting Islamic teachings, addressing social issues, and engaging in humanitarian services and educational activities. Over time, the enmity between traditionalists and modernists has diminished, with a focus on common causes and social issues.

The chapter concludes by highlighting the diverse religious landscape in Indonesia, with different groups following varying interpretations of Islam. The Kolot-Moderen dichotomy identified by Geertz is discussed, with Kolot being more rigid and puritanical, while Moderen is more tolerant of local culture. The influence of Middle Eastern teachings and returning students and pilgrims on Indonesia’s revivalist and reformist movements is also noted, illustrating the ongoing struggle between traditionalists and modernists in shaping religious practices in the country.

Chapter 4

Chapter IV engages with the Pesantren system of traditional Islamic education in Java, Indonesia. It provides a comprehensive exploration of the origin, development, and significant role of Pesantren in shaping the social, cultural, and religious life of Javanese villagers. The chapter meticulously reviews existing literature on Pesantren, highlighting the system’s historical context and its evolution over time.

A key focus of the chapter is the ongoing transformations and adaptations of the Pesantren system in response to modernization and globalization. It discusses how these changes are influencing the traditional educational practices and the curriculum within Pesantren. The chapter also examines the integration of modern subjects alongside religious studies, reflecting the dynamic nature of Pesantren education as it strives to remain relevant in contemporary society.

The chapter touches on the various stages of learning within Pesantren, the texts studied, and the career options available for graduates. It underscores the importance of Pesantren in not only imparting religious knowledge but also in teaching practical skills and discipline, thereby preparing students for diverse future opportunities.

Chapter IV provides a detailed analysis of the Pesantren system, emphasizing its pivotal role in the cultural and religious fabric of Javanese society and its continuous evolution in the face of modern challenges.

Chapter 5

Chapter V critically analyses the Pallidarss system of Islamic higher education in Kerala, a traditional educational framework developed within mosques. The chapter begins by exploring the origins of the term “Pallidarss” and the various elements that constitute this system. It highlights the significant role played by mosques and Mahallu committees in supporting and sustaining the Pallidarss system.

The chapter reviews the limited literature available on Pallidarss, pointing out the scarcity of detailed academic studies on this important educational system. It notes that the Pallidarss system has a long history dating back to the 7th century and has been instrumental in producing scholars and leaders within the Muslim community in Kerala. However, the system has faced numerous challenges and changes, particularly in the 20th century, with the advent of modern education and differing theological perspectives. Traditionalists have upheld the Pallidarss system, while modernists have criticized it and called for reforms.

The Nizami Syllabus, which is a part of the Pallidarss system, focused on teaching challenging texts across various subjects to foster intellectual growth. There was some opposition to this emphasis on rational and intellectual sciences, with some scholars advocating for a focus on traditional subjects like Tafsir and Hadith. Over time, the syllabus evolved, with institutions adopting a mix of Nizami and Dahlawi syllabuses and different regions developing their own variations. The curriculum included classical texts and subjects such as Arabic grammar, Quranic exegesis, jurisprudence, ethics, logic, history, and mysticism. The initial stages of education in Pallidarss involved studying Arabic grammar, Shafi jurisprudence, and texts on doctrine, ethics, and mysticism.

The success of a Pallidarss in a Mahallu largely depends on the interest and commitment of the local committee and community. Scholars play a crucial role in attracting students, who typically join at a young age to pursue religious knowledge. Education in Pallidarss is provided for free, with community support, although economic conditions have altered the tradition of sending sons to Pallidarss over time. Students are known for their hard work and respect towards their teachers, and the community often provides gifts and support for their education. The Pallidarss system serves as a place for students from poor backgrounds or those dedicated to religious education.

The chapter also discusses the traditional method of religious education in Pallidarss, where students stay with host families and receive religious instruction. This system facilitates mass education and the dissemination of knowledge to the public, providing training for a religious life and allowing students to learn at their own pace. The introduction of Arabic/Shari’a colleges in India, influenced by British education systems, led to the establishment of institutions like Darul Uloom Deoband and Baqiyat ul-Salihat Arabic College in Vellore, which played significant roles in modernizing Islamic education in South India. The modernization of traditional Islamic education faced opposition from some traditional scholars but was supported by others, leading to the establishment of various Arabic/Shari’a colleges with different educational philosophies, including traditional, modernist, and Islamist perspectives.

Despite facing criticism for its teaching methods, syllabus, and lack of exposure to modern education, the Pallidarss system has played a crucial role in preserving Islamic culture and tradition among Kerala Muslims. The curriculum has evolved to include a mix of traditional Islamic studies and some modern subjects, adapting to the changing educational landscape. The system has produced many scholars and religious leaders who have contributed to the intellectual and educational revival of the Muslim community in Kerala.

The later part of the chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the traditional Islamic education system in Kerala, particularly focusing on the curriculum, stages of education, and the ongoing efforts to modernize and integrate secular subjects into religious studies. The traditional Arabic/Sharia colleges in Kerala follow a structured educational system divided into multiple stages. The second stage includes the study of classical Arabic grammar and the Shafi legal text “Fathul Muin,” along with various other texts across different branches of knowledge. The third stage involves more advanced texts in Shafi jurisprudence, legal theory, and Hadith. The curriculum is designed to provide a holistic education encompassing both religious and secular subjects, including Balagha (Rhetoric), Mantiq (Logic), Philosophy, Theology, Mathematics, Astronomy, and Fiqh of Inheritance.

The traditional Islamic education system, known as Pallidarss, emphasizes a broad range of subjects such as Hisab (mathematics), astronomy, Qibla science, Tafsir (Quranic exegesis), and Hadith. Students receive practical training in Quranic recitation and memorisation, focusing on moral and spiritual development. Efforts by scholars like Marhoom MM Basheer Musliyar Al-Baqawi have been instrumental in integrating traditional religious education with modern knowledge, which is seen as essential for religious graduates to cope with modern trends. Examples of reformed courses include the Hudawi and Wafi courses, which blend religious and secular subjects to prepare scholars for the modern world while maintaining Islamic values.

There is an ongoing debate between traditionalists and modernists regarding the relevance and approach to teaching various subjects. Traditionalists emphasize the importance of classical texts and religious knowledge, while modernists advocate for a curriculum that includes contemporary subjects to better equip students for the modern world. Historically, women in the Mappila community had limited access to religious education. However, recent efforts have been made to provide higher Islamic education for women, empowering them to contribute positively to their families and society. Notable initiatives include the Fatima Zahra Islamic Women College in Chemmad, which offers five to seven years of courses, focusing on both Sharia and secular subjects. Additionally, Samastha’s Sharia College for Women and the Wafiyya Course are designed for girls who have completed their SSLC exams, aiming to create well-rounded individuals educated in both religious and secular subjects.

Kerala’s traditional Islamic education system is undergoing significant changes to adapt to modern needs. Efforts to integrate secular subjects into the religious curriculum and provide higher education opportunities for women are steps towards creating a balanced and comprehensive educational framework. These initiatives aim to produce scholars who are well-versed in both religious and contemporary knowledge capable of contributing meaningfully to society.

Chapter 6

Chapter VI delves into the historical and cultural parallels between Islamic culture and religious education in Kerala and Java. It begins by exploring the arrival of Islam in both regions, emphasizing the significant role played by Arab traders and missionaries in the formation of Islamic communities. The chapter underscores the influence of the Malabar region in Indonesia and the establishment of Arab settlements, particularly by Hadhrami Arabs, who were instrumental in shaping the Islamic education and culture in both Kerala and Java.

The chapter further examines the traditionalist Muslim cultures in these regions, highlighting shared practices such as mosque construction, the use of localized Muslim names, participation in anti-colonial struggles, and a deep interest in Sufism. Common religious practices include visiting graves, kissing hands, learning about the lives of pious ancestors, and engaging in esoteric rituals like reciting Mawlids and Ratibs.

Traditional religious scholars in both Java and Kerala exhibit similar practices and dress styles, although they differ in their views on women’s participation in public affairs. The religious education systems in both regions follow a similar curriculum and syllabus, with some variations in the texts used. These scholars play a crucial role in preserving traditional beliefs and practices amidst the pressures of modernization and secularization.

The practice of Ratih Ratib, which involves collective chanting of litanies, is prevalent among Sufi orders in both Indonesia and Kerala. There is also a shared devotion to Sheikh Muhyiddin Jilani. The chapter compares the Pesantren system in Indonesia with the Pallidarss system in Kerala, noting similarities in their structure and purpose and differences in funding and responsibilities. Both systems are led by influential religious figures who command respect within their communities.

Finally, the chapter discusses the evolution of the traditional Islamic education system in Kerala, known as Pallidarss, which has been influenced by Arab contacts and the establishment of Baqiyat Arabic College. This has led to a shift away from rational sciences towards more job-oriented subjects. In contrast, Islamic education in Java has benefited from the establishment of Islamic universities, which have improved relations between different theological groups. Government initiatives have enabled Pesantren graduates to pursue formal higher education, fostering dialogue and understanding among diverse backgrounds.

Conclusion

The conclusion of the research highlights the evolving nature of traditional Islamic education systems in Kerala and Java. It underscores the significant role played by Ulama and the Hadhrami Arabs in the dissemination of Islamic knowledge. The study notes the impact of modernization on these traditional systems, particularly in the shift from the Pallidarss system to a new approach that prioritizes job-market relevance. This shift has altered the focus, aims, and objectives of religious education, placing a greater emphasis on producing qualified job-seekers rather than prolific religious scholars. The conclusion suggests that further exploration is needed to fully understand these changes’ implications.

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