Thesis Review

Review of the Chapters:

The first chapter “Education, Social Stratification, and Social Capital” delves into the complex interplay of social structure, social capital, and educational outcomes among Mappila Muslims in South Malabar, Kerala. The study aims to document and examine the experience of caste and its consequences among Muslims in the region, particularly focusing on the educational backwardness of Muslim women. The chapter provides a comprehensive understanding of the educational development of Muslims in South Malabar and the factors contributing to the region’s educational lag. The chapter draws on the perspectives of sociologists Bourdieu and Coleman to analyze the role of education in reproducing or reducing inequality in society. It highlights the caste-based social stratification among Mappila Muslims and its impact on educational attainment, shedding light on the differential impact of diversity within the Muslim community on their educational outcomes. The study delves into the concept of social capital, emphasizing its foundational theories and empirical application within the realm of education. The chapter also narrates the story of Jaleel, a barber who feels discriminated against in the Muslim community due to the hierarchical division of labor, highlighting the existence of endogamous caste groups among Muslims in South Malabar. The study examines historical and sociological viewpoints on social capital, exploring the impact of the Hindu caste system and Islamic tradition on the caste structure within the Muslim community. The chapter also highlights the tendency to deny the existence of a caste system among Muslims in Kerala, underscoring the importance of recognizing and comprehending the discrimination and exclusion experienced by lower castes within the community.

Furthermore, this chapter offers valuable insights into the educational status of Muslims in South Malabar, shedding light on challenges such as their disadvantaged economic backgrounds, unfavorable academic environments, and inconvenient living conditions. It delves into the repercussions of colonial rule on the educational system, emphasizing the resistance of Muslim ulamas to secular education. This exploration reveals both internal and external factors contributing to the educational backwardness of Muslims in India. The educational status of Muslims in South Malabar, particularly in the district of Malappuram, is underscored, with a specific focus on disparities in higher educational opportunities and the number of graduates, especially concerning women’s education. The chapter seeks to challenge the prevailing perception of Kerala Muslims enjoying a superior educational status, aiming to scrutinize the exclusion of specific regions and caste groups from the celebrated “Kerala model” of development. Addressing the intersection of caste, gender, and religious sect, the chapter elucidates their combined impact on the higher education of Muslims in South Malabar. A particular emphasis is placed on the triple social exclusion faced by women in various caste groups. The examination of the relationship between early marriage and higher education, along with an exploration of the reasons for child marriage in the region, forms a critical part of the discussion.

The second chapter, titled ‘Literacy, Schooling, and Higher Education of Muslims in South Malabar,’ delves into the challenges faced by Muslims in the region in accessing higher education. It sheds light on difficulties related to college admissions and the financial burden associated with attending private colleges. A comparative analysis of the educational status of Muslims in Kerala with those in other Indian states reveals that, despite satisfactory literacy rates, Muslims in Kerala lag behind in higher education. The chapter also discusses the impact of social inequality on educational opportunities and the unequal distribution of resources.

The educational attainment and background of Muslims in Kerala demonstrate intra-religious differences, with certain sects exhibiting higher education levels and greater representation in government jobs. This disparity is attributed to historical factors and uneven resource distribution. Malappuram district in South Malabar is specifically highlighted for having lower literacy rates than the state average, along with significant gender inequality in higher education. The district also lags behind in school facilities and the number of higher secondary graduates compared to other districts in Kerala. The chapter emphasizes that the educational backwardness among Muslims is not uniform, with South Kerala Muslims being more educated and having higher workforce participation compared to those in Malappuram district. It also addresses the denial of the existence of caste among Muslims, arguing that caste-based discrimination exists in South Malabar. The demographic and educational trends in Kerala, particularly in the South Malabar region, are discussed, emphasizing the high population growth rate, urbanization, and the majority Muslim population in Malappuram district. The impact of education on fertility rates and population growth is also highlighted, along with the diversity within the Muslim community in the region.

Furthermore, the chapter presents data from the 2011 Census Report of India, revealing that while Kerala Muslims have the highest literacy rate among Muslims in India, they still have lower levels of literacy, higher secondary education, and higher education compared to other religious communities in the state. The data also indicates that Muslim women in Kerala face more discrimination in education compared to their male counterparts, with factors such as child marriage, rejection of the English language, and fewer higher educational institutions in Muslim-populated areas contributing to the lower educational status of Muslims in Kerala. Moreover, the chapter highlights disparities in educational development within the state, attributing the emergence of uneconomic schools in the Malappuram district to factors such as low birth rates, school competition, and the preference for private schools. The district also exhibits low levels of female education and high rates of child marriages.

The impact of social and economic factors on the educational status of Muslims in South Malabar is discussed, emphasizing the financial burden of higher education. Many students face challenges in paying college fees, leading some to consider dropping out or taking up part-time jobs to support their education. This financial strain is exacerbated by the unequal distribution of resources and opportunities, resulting in disparities in educational attainment within the Muslim community in the region. Furthermore, the chapter addresses gender disparities in education, specifically lower levels of female workforce participation and limited opportunities for higher education for women. This situation contributes to the “thin agency” of women in decision-making processes and perpetuates patriarchal norms, leading to early marriage, college dropouts, and limited economic and social roles for women in the region.

The emergence of private schools and the preference for private education over government schools are also discussed as contributing factors to educational disparities in the region. The rise of private English-medium schools, especially after the 1990s, is attributed to factors such as the growing middle class, decreased government subsidies for education, and the broader endorsement of privatization of education in India. The chapter underscores the importance of higher education for stable social and economic development within a community. It highlights significant differences in the number of graduates among the six major religious groups in India, with Muslims lagging behind all other religious communities in terms of higher education attainment.

The third chapter, titled ‘Status, Occupation, and Endogamy: Social Stratification among Muslims in South Malabar,’ thoroughly explores the social stratification and caste divisions prevalent among Muslims in South Malabar, Kerala. It delves into the experiences of various caste groups, including Thangals, Barbers, Fishermen, and Mapaillas, shedding light on their traditional occupations, endogamous marriage practices, and social hierarchy. Despite denials by the elite and religious leaders, the chapter argues that the existence of caste divisions among Kerala Muslims is unmistakable, resembling the Hindu caste system. The chapter emphasizes the challenges faced by individuals from lower caste groups, even if they manage to achieve higher social and economic status. It highlights the discrimination encountered by the Barbers and Fishermen, the strict endogamous marriage practices of the Thangals, and the endorsement of the higher status of Thangals by traditional ulamas from Sunni fractions. The possession and mobilization of social capital by each caste group are also discussed in relation to their pursuit of higher education.

Additionally, the chapter touches on the impact of migration to the Gulf on the economic status of the Barber community and the prevalence of child marriages among them. It also explores the discrimination and derogatory treatment faced by the Muslim fishing community, known as Mukkuvar, and their struggle with poverty and unemployment due to the depletion of marine fishery resources. The discussed chapter provides a poignant portrayal of the struggles and aspirations of individuals from different caste groups within the Muslim community in South Malabar. The narratives of individuals like Shareef, a barber, and Shafeeque, a fisherman, offer a glimpse into the challenges and aspirations of those engaged in traditional occupations. Shareef’s account reflects the economic stability and social dynamics within the barber community, shedding light on the impact of migration to the Gulf on the economic status of individuals from lower caste groups. Shafeeque’s story underscores the physical and emotional hardships faced by fishermen, particularly during times of famine and the depletion of marine fishery resources.

The chapter also addresses the impact of education and migration on the social mobility of individuals from lower caste groups. Shafeeque’s regret over not clearing the SSLC exams and the subsequent visa restrictions for Gulf migration highlights the intersection of education, economic opportunities, and social status. Additionally, the contrasting views on the impact of Gulf migration within the community underscore the complexities of social and economic transformation and the coexistence of poverty and prosperity within the Muslim fishing community. Furthermore, the chapter delves into the gender dynamics within these caste groups, shedding light on the roles and responsibilities of women in these communities. The portrayal of women as primary caretakers, their limited interaction with the outside world, and their minimal awareness of educational and career prospects for their children offer insights into the gendered division of labor and the challenges faced by women in these traditional communities.

Moreover, the chapter addresses the religious and social dynamics that perpetuate the marginalization of certain caste groups within the Muslim community. The account of the Barber community’s social status, religious beliefs, and the discrimination they face in marriage alliances underscores the entrenched social hierarchy and the impact of religious teachings on perpetuating caste-based discrimination.

Chapter IV, titled “A Discussion on Education, Occupation, and Networks of the Head of the Households,” presents a comprehensive analysis of the educational, occupational, and social network dynamics within the communities of South Malabar. The chapter delves into the educational profiles of household heads, encompassing their literacy, school education, and higher education attainment. It also explores the influence of parental education on children’s educational outcomes. Additionally, the occupation of household heads is examined, including traditional occupations, agriculture, self-employment, government jobs, and the impact of Gulf migration on household occupations and social capital. The possession of social capital by families is discussed, analyzing their memberships in organizations and associations such as Parent-Teacher Associations, religious organizations, voluntary groups, political parties, and local sports clubs, along with their influence on educational and occupational opportunities.

The theoretical framework of this chapter is grounded in sociological theories that underscore the relationship between occupation, social status, and educational attainment. It also draws on the concept of social capital and its influence on educational development and community dynamics. The methodology involves a mixed-method approach, combining quantitative data analysis with qualitative insights from ethnographic observations and interviews with community members. This approach provides a comprehensive understanding of the social, educational, and occupational dynamics within the communities in South Malabar.

Furthermore, the chapter addresses the impact of parental education on the educational aspirations of children, emphasizing the determination of less educated parents to provide better education for their children despite challenges in accessing information about educational opportunities and admission processes. It also examines the influence of Gulf migration on educational and occupational trajectories, particularly in relation to the early age migration of children from less educated families compared to educated families. The chapter provides insights into gender disparities in educational attainment and occupational opportunities. It highlights the educational achievements of women at the school level and the limited representation of male and female graduates within different caste groups. The chapter also discusses literacy rates among different caste groups, emphasizing the high literacy rate among the Sayyids and the challenges faced by illiterate individuals, particularly in accessing formal schooling opportunities.

Chapter V, titled “Caste, Gender, and Networks: Impact on Higher Education,” focuses on the intricate interplay of caste, gender, and networks concerning higher education in South Malabar. The chapter delves into the influence of these factors on the educational status of various caste groups and the existing gender gap in higher education attainment. The study underscores the significant impact of caste on educational attainment, with caste acting as an ascriptive characteristic that adversely affects the education of so-called lower castes. The research reveals disparities in higher education attainment among the four caste groups, with the Sayyids and Malabaris outpacing the Fishermen and Barbers in higher education levels. Notably, the representation of Barbers and Fishermen in higher education is disproportionately low, marking them as the most excluded Muslim communities from higher education.

Furthermore, the chapter addresses the gender gap in higher education, noting that girls consistently outperform boys in high school and at the higher secondary level but are less likely to complete their college education. This trend cuts across all caste groups in South Malabar, with men outnumbering women in the graduate population. The study emphasizes community apprehensions regarding female higher education beyond school, despite changes in the consumerist behavior and lifestyle of Muslim women over time. The impact of networks and social capital on educational status is explored in the literature review. It is highlighted that the possession of social and cultural capital, particularly by dominant caste groups such as the Thangals, significantly influences educational status. The Thangals are portrayed as wielding political power and serving as the ‘rightful custodians’ of the religion, reflecting their dominant status in society, which is mirrored in their educational achievements.

Additionally, the chapter addresses the intersection of caste, sects, and family networks in the context of higher educational status. It is observed that the uneven possession of social and economic capital within families contributes to educational disparities among caste groups. For instance, the Mujahids are shown to possess superior educational credentials compared to the Sunnis, attributed to their early entry into modern education and better parental education.

Methods and Methodology

The primary theoretical framework of this research is rooted in the works of Bourdieu and Coleman, specifically focusing on their theories concerning social capital and its impact on educational outcomes. Bourdieu’s perspective on social capital is notably pessimistic, asserting that it is unevenly distributed in society and plays a role in perpetuating educational inequality. In contrast, Coleman’s theory posits that accessible social capital within families and communities can contribute to reducing educational inequality. The study aims to investigate how the allocation of social capital among different caste groups in a stratified society like India influences educational outcomes. Furthermore, the research incorporates concepts such as strong and weak ties, homophily networks, and the absence of the ‘strength of weak ties,’ particularly in the context of educational backwardness, especially for women in the locality. The discussion also delves into the lack of strong family social capital due to factors like Gulf migration and the resulting structural deficiencies in families concerning educational outcomes.

The research adopts a micro-demographic community study approach, combining ethnography and survey methods to explore the educational status of Muslims in Kerala, with a specific focus on South Malabar. This approach facilitates extensive informal discussions with community members to comprehend the local history and culture specific to different caste groups. The study employs multiple data collection techniques to capture diverse voices within the culture. Fieldwork was conducted in Malappuram district, one of the most educationally marginalized regions in Kerala, involving members from both present and parent generations. The selection of fieldwork sites was based on their social, cultural, and historical significance within the Muslim population of the region. Additionally, the research draws on literature related to Muslim caste, social capital, and educational status to offer a comprehensive analysis. The methodology aims to address the complexity of Muslim caste groups and their education in South Malabar, shedding light on the educational marginalization within the region.

Sources

The data sources for this research encompass household surveys, ethnographic fieldwork, and information derived from Census reports, NSSO, as well as other governmental and non-governmental reports. Household surveys were conducted in forty households for each of the four caste groups under study: Barbers, Fishermen, Thangals, and Malabaris. The data sample includes members from both the present generation (G2) and the parent generation (G1) in Malappuram district. Interviews were also conducted with parents, various religious leaders, caste association leaders, teachers in schools, and imams in various masjids to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of the causes and consequences of child marriage in the region. Ethnographic fieldwork was carried out in various phases from March 2013 to June 2016. The writing style was influenced by the work of Lila Abu-Lughod, emphasizing the significance of stories, conversations, and narratives of individuals. The field stories and narratives are organized around major sociological themes such as Muslim caste experiences, parental occupation, parental education, strength and weakness of ties, and age at marriage (child/early marriage).

The study integrates literature on Muslim caste, social capital, and educational status to provide a comprehensive analysis. The theoretical framework of the chapter is rooted in the work of Bourdieu and Coleman, specifically focusing on their theories of social capital and its impact on educational outcomes. Bourdieu’s perspective on social capital is more pessimistic, asserting that it is unevenly distributed in society and contributes to the reproduction of educational inequality. Conversely, Coleman’s theory suggests that accessible social capital within families and communities can contribute to reducing educational inequality. The study aims to examine how the distribution of social capital among different caste groups in a stratified society like India impacts educational outcomes. The thesis discusses the educational status of Kerala Muslims in relation to Muslims of Other States (MOS) and Socio-Religious Categories (SCR) in the state. It focuses on the demographic character of the field and provides a detailed analysis of the present educational status of South Malabar, highlighting the educational marginalization within the region, particularly concerning women’s education.

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