Malabar History journal

In the nineteenth-century Malayalee society, women faced significant barriers due to caste hierarchies and intra-caste restrictions, confining them to traditional gender roles (K.K. Indira, 1992; Meera Velayudhan, 1994). The societal framework, characterized by vertical hierarchies of caste, manifested in diverse gender roles, with women often confined to their ‘feminine’ world, performing duties within the domestic sphere. The transition from this traditional society to a more progressive one coincided with a discernible movement from the private to the public sphere in the lives of Malayalee women, aligning with Jurgen Habermas’ “Theory of Public Sphere” (Turner, 1987).

Habermas conceptualizes the public sphere as a realm of social life where individuals engage in rational discourse free from customary constraints. Civil society, as envisioned by Habermas, plays a pivotal role in shaping public opinion through discourse and serves as a counterbalance to state influence (Elliot, 2003). Partha Chatterjee associates civil society with modernization, emphasizing its role in shaping modern political practices in non-western societies (Chatterjee, 1989).

Scholars like Tanika Sarkar and Visalakshi Menon attribute women’s entry into the public domain to the Gandhian Movement and the role of education in shaping women’s political consciousness during the national movement (Sarkar, 1989; Menon, 2003).

Devika traces the origin of the “public sphere” to the late nineteenth century, highlighting the emergence of a critical, English-educated class challenging societal norms. Persistent gender discrimination during this period delineated spaces into ‘public’ and ‘domestic,’ assigned to men and women, respectively. The late nineteenth century also witnessed the formation of reading clubs and debating societies, fostering discussions on ‘general’ and ‘public’ interests. Women’s magazines like Keraleeya Sugunabodhini played a crucial role in shaping this early ‘public sphere,’ focusing on issues such as women’s education and contributing to societal attitude change (Devika, 2002; Mini Sukumaran & Devika, 2006). Devika’s analysis underscores the transformative impact of women’s magazines, coinciding with the expansion of civil social institutions around familial roles. The Nambuthiri Brahmin Reform further advocated for women’s active integration into modern spheres of life, marking a shift in societal perspectives. The 1930s witnessed the active participation of women in the public domain, particularly during Gandhian Nationalism, signifying a broader transformation in Malabar society driven by both internal compulsions and external forces (Devika, 1999, 2000; Borthwick, 1984; Andal, 2002).

Women’s education in Malabar underwent a transformative journey initiated by missionary efforts in the mid-19th century. At the outset, the condition of women was dire, with restrictive customs denying them their birthright to education. Missionary societies, driven by their evangelical goals, established the first girls’ school in Tellichery in 1839, expanding to various locations in Kannur, Chombala, Palghat, Calicut, Manjeri, Kodakkal, and Vaniyamkulam. The curriculum included Bible studies, English, History, Geography, as well as practical skills like knitting and sewing (Hepzi Joy, 1995). These missionary activities played a pivotal role in breaking down societal barriers, enabling girls from all castes and religions to access education, ultimately contributing to their participation in various social, economic, and political activities (Sundaram, 2005).

The missionary impact on women’s education in Malabar had profound social implications by providing vocational training, increasing employment opportunities, and elevating women’s economic and social status (Gopalakrishnan, 1974). Missionaries played a key role in loosening rigid caste rules, enabling women to study alongside men and actively participate in society. This transformative period in the late 19th century saw a growing acknowledgment of the necessity of women’s education, with pioneers like Appu Nedungadi founding the Society for the Promotion of Education of Women (SPEW) and establishing the first indigenous girls’ school, breaking caste barriers and symbolizing the impact of liberal ideologies. Despite facing challenges from traditionalists opposing women’s education, the literary works of the time, including early novels like “Indulekha,” “Meenakshi,” “Sarada,” and “Sukumari,” underscored the essentiality of women’s education, reflecting a societal shift towards recognizing its importance for overall progress and empowerment (Vasanthi, 2009; Mooliyil, 2003).

The emergence of women’s organizations, such as the All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) and Mahila Samajams in Malabar, played a crucial role in advocating for societal change. Even earlier, Stree Samajams in Malabar, as documented in the women’s journal Sarada, showcased the efforts of leaders like T.B. Kalliani Amma and T. Ammukutty Amma. These organizations became platforms for social activities and education initiatives, contributing to the changing perceptions of women’s roles in society. Additionally, post-World War I saw the formation of more women’s organizations in Malabar, including branches of the Women Indian Association in Calicut under the leadership of Margaret Cousins. The associations aimed to create awareness, educate women, and assist the underprivileged and disabled, with notable leaders like Pattathil Devaki Amma and Manjeri Kamalambal (Manasi, 2005). Women actively involved in these organizations played crucial roles in both the national movement and post-independence efforts, contributing significantly to societal upliftment and the fight against British imperialism. These organizations not only provided a platform for women’s participation in public life but also paved the way for their continued involvement and impact on various social and political fronts (Vasanthi, 2009).

Women’s journals and magazines, such as “Keraleeya Suguna Bodhini,” played a significant role in societal attitude change, coupled with the expansion of civil social institutions organized around familial roles (Devika, 2005). One influential figure in this literary landscape was Theravath Ammalu Amma (1863-1936), who initiated the journal “Sreemathi” and contributed extensively to various magazines like “Sarada,” “Lakshmibai,” and “Vanitha Kusumam.” Her writings, primarily focused on women’s education, emphasized the importance of imparting primary education in the mother tongue, followed by a Western-style education. Theravath Ammalu Amma’s work was not only instrumental in promoting women’s education but also delved into broader aspects of human character, spirituality, and social life. She was honored with the title “Sahitya Sakhi” by the Cochin Government in 1919, reflecting her significant contributions to literature and women’s progress (Vasanthi,2009).

K.M. Kunhilakshmi Kettilamma (1877-1947), another noteworthy scholar, made significant contributions through articles like “Azhvancheri Thamprakkal” and “Streekalum Sahityavum” published in various magazines. She was an advocate for women’s progress through literature and played a pivotal role in promoting the role of women in literary pursuits. Additionally, Kadathanat Madhavi Amma (1909-1999) emerged as a prominent figure by publishing her first historic novel, “Thacholi Othenan,” at the age of nineteen. While not directly involved in the national movement, her writings reflected the spirit of the times, advocating for women’s freedom and portraying an ideal woman as an embodiment of motherhood. These women writers, along with others, collectively contributed to the significant role of women’s magazines and journals in shaping the narrative and bringing women into the mainstream of Malabar society during the early decades of the twentieth century (ibid).

In Malabar, the advent of women into public life during the national movement was significantly influenced by the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi (Vasanthi, 2009). Gandhi’s transformative approach to the Indian National Congress, making it a democratic and mass organization, created a conducive environment for women to participate actively (Nehru, 1981). The mass participation under Gandhi’s leadership provided women with a sense of equality with men, challenging the traditional norms prevalent in Indian society (Vasanthi, 2009).

Women’s political engagement during the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922) marked a crucial turning point, even though their direct involvement was often indirect, primarily through Gandhi’s Constructive Programme (Dagar, 1998). During this period, women in Malabar engaged in activities such as spinning at home using the Charka, donning Khadi clothing, and participating in Charka classes. These activities, while seemingly indirect, symbolized women’s entry into public life during the initial years of the Gandhian era (Vasanthi, 2009). Additionally, women like Thathakutty Amma and Kaumudi teacher played vital roles in fundraising for Gandhian initiatives, particularly the Harijan Welfare Programme. Thathakutty Amma, as the president of the Ladies Wing in Calicut, worked tirelessly to raise funds for the program, showcasing the active participation of women in the national movement inspired by Gandhism (ibid). The appeal made by Gandhi to women to donate their gold ornaments for the upliftment of Harijans also led to instances of remarkable individual contributions, further highlighting the impact of Gandhian principles on women’s involvement in Malabar’s public life (ibid).

In conclusion, the trajectory of women entering public life in Malabar is a multifaceted and dynamic process shaped by historical, social, and political forces. From the constraints of traditional Malayalee society to active participation in civil society and political movements, women have overcome barriers and played a pivotal role in societal upliftment and the struggle against British imperialism. This evolution echoes a broader global movement towards gender equality, with education, civil society, and influential leaders contributing to this transformative journey (K.K. Indira, 1992; Meera Velayudhan, 1994; Hepzi Joy, 1995; Gopalakrishnan, 1974; Elliot, 2003; Devika, 2002; Tanika Sarkar, 1989; Vasanthi, 2009). The interplay of these factors reflects the resilience and determination of women in Malabar to redefine their roles and assert their presence in the public sphere.

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