Malabar History journal

Mawlid Narratives in the Islamic World

Mawlid narratives find expression in Arabic prose and verse across the Islamic world, with a notable emphasis on the Keralite Muslim tradition. The Arabic word ‘mawlid,’ which popularly refers to the birthday of the Prophet Muhammad (mawlid al-nabi), designates both the observance and celebration of his birthday (also known as milad) and the literary genre appropriate for recitation on such occasions. However, Mappilas more commonly use the term ‘mawlud,’ which in local parlance appears to be a slight corruption of mawlid, the classical Arabic word for the observance of the Prophet’s birthday, rather than referring to the related Arabic noun of the same construction (i.e., mawlud), which means ‘new-born child’ (Kuzhiyan 2015). This article retains the word mawlid when discussing this tradition of devotional piety in the larger Islamic world. By extension, other revered Islamic personalities, such as the martyrs of the Battle of Badr and Sufi figures, also have mawlids written in their honour.

Historical Context and Evolution of Mawlid Observances

Mawlid narratives have a history as checkered as that of the mawlid (birthday of the Prophet Muhammad) observance. The Prophet’s birthday, celebrated on the twelfth day of the Islamic lunar month of Rabi’-ul-Awwal, stands as one of the most significant festivals in the Muslim calendar. However, its celebration has sparked considerable debate within the Islamic tradition. Even proponents acknowledge that mawlid is an innovation (bid‘a) that emerged centuries after the Prophet’s life. The core of the debate lies not in the origins of the mawlid celebration during the Prophet’s lifetime, but in its theological legitimacy despite its belatedness. Many mainstream Sunni Islamic scholars argue that mawlid is a good innovation (bid‘a hasana) and, therefore, permissible to observe and celebrate. This stance is supported by numerous treatises and fatwas (legal opinions) on the legitimacy of mawlid, such as Jalaluddin al-Suyuti’s (d. 1505) ‘Husnul Maqsid fi ‘Amal al-Mawlid’ (The Goodness of Purpose in Reference to the Observance of Mawlid) (Ibn Taymiyya, 1998). A comprehensive English work detailing the early history of the mawlid celebration was authored by N. J. G. Kaptein, titled ‘Muhammad’s Birthday Festival’ (1993) (Katz, 2007).

According to Kaptein, the Shiite Fatimid dynasty, which ruled Egypt from 358 AH/969 CE to 567 AH/1171 CE, is known to have celebrated the Prophet’s birthday as a state occasion, though the exact chronological limits of the Fatimid celebration of the mawlid remain uncertain. In the Sunni tradition, Katz (2007) notes that some prominent Sunnis began observing the Prophet’s birthday around the time of the Fatimid dynasty’s decline. These celebrations included feasting and Sufi audition (sama) accompanied by various forms of literary production. The Syrian ruler Nur al-Din (d. 569 AH/1174 CE) celebrated the Prophet’s birthday with night-time feasting, illuminations, and poetry presentations. The next recorded Sunni mawlid celebration was held by Muzaffar al-Din Kökbüri, a member of the local Begteginid dynasty, in Irbil during the early seventh century AH/thirteenth century CE (Katz, 2007). Given that neither of these celebrations is explicitly described by contemporary sources as innovative, it is unlikely that their dates mark the initiation of the celebration in these religious circles. Instead, they likely represent the points at which a pre-existing practice was documented in surviving sources (ibid). The history of mawlid texts, like the history of mawlid observance, extends beyond the documented beginnings of the celebration under the Fatimid dynasty. While the mawlid genre as a literary form for recitation on the Prophet’s birthday is relatively late, works focusing on the Prophet’s birth and life belong to a much older tradition (ibid).

Themes and Forms in Mawlid Literature

A central feature of the celebration of the Prophet’s birthday is the collective reading and singing of devotional literature in prose and verse, known as mawlid. This peculiar literary genre flourished across the Muslim world, encompassing a variety of texts that share certain generic conventions and thematic concerns. Among the salient themes underpinning the mawlid literature are the pre-existence of the Prophet and the Light of Muhammad, the Prophet’s conception and Amina’s pregnancy, the Prophet’s birth and accompanying miracles, omens and prognostications of his advent, and the story of Halima, the Prophet’s wet nurse. These themes hold an archetypal status within the mawlid genre, with nearly every known mawlid text revolving around one or more of these motifs that have been deeply ingrained in the Islamic tradition.

The pre-existence of the Light of Muhammad, including its origination at the beginning of creation and its passage through the loins of the Prophet’s ancestors, is a foundational element of the mawlid narrative. Most mawlid texts, whether authored or informally compiled, begin with an account of this Light. While this might seem to paradoxically diminish the significance of the Prophet’s physical birth in the sixth century CE, the event commemorated by mawlid celebrations the tradition overwhelmingly treats the Prophet’s birth as an episode in an ongoing cosmic drama that began with creation itself. Thus, the Prophet’s physical birth is seen not as the beginning of his existence, but as the moment when his manifold blessings become manifest on earth and accessible to humanity. The pre-existence of the Light of Muhammad is described or alluded to in various ways in mawlid texts, often based on narratives associated with the Prophet’s Companions, Ka‘b al-Ahbar and Jabir ibn ‘Abd Allah al-Ansari.

Apart from the primordial light theme, narratives about the Prophet’s conception, the wonders accompanying it, Amina’s pregnancy with its supernatural aura, the actual birth of the Prophet, the miracles coinciding with his birth, and the story of Halima, the Prophet’s wet-nurse, have all enriched the thematic fabric of subsequent mawlid texts. Praise poetry to the Prophet Muhammad (mada’ih nabawiyya), extolling his virtues and exemplary personality, is also commonly used in organized mawlid recitals alongside traditional mawlid texts. Examples include the celebrated mantle odes to the Prophet, such as Banat Su‘ad by Ka‘b Ibn Zuhayr and al-Kawakib al-Durriya by al-Busiri (Stetkevych, 2010). Additionally, other literary genres like salawat and salamat verses, tawassul, and du‘a are often integrated into mawlid collections. Salawat and salamat invoke divine blessings upon the Prophet, directly inspired by the Quranic verse 33:56, reinforcing the theological legitimacy of the mawlid celebration. Tawassul, intercessory prayers asking for the Prophet’s intercession, and du‘a, closing prayers seeking divine protection and fulfillment of wishes, are also integral components of mawlid texts. These varied literary forms converge to create standardized and popular collections recited during the Prophet’s birth celebrations and other occasions, circulating widely among Muslim communities, such as the Mappila Muslims of Kerala, who include these texts in their prayer books known as mawlid kitab or sabeena (Zainuddin Makhdum I, 2024)

The Manqus Mawlid and Its Significance

The most popular mawlid work in Malabar is known as al-Manqus (Manqus Mawlid), traditionally attributed to the renowned Mappila ‘alim (religious scholar) of Yemeni Arab descent, Shaikh Zainuddin b. Ali al-Makhdum al-Malabari , also called ‘the senior Makhdum.’ Shaikh Zainuddin presided over the Shaikh Makhdum institution in Ponnani, northern Kerala, during its heyday. According to tradition, Shaikh Zainuddin composed this mawlid when approached by the people of Ponnani and its surroundings, who were fearful of deadly diseases breaking out in their midst (Nadwi 2006; Faizy 2008). This work has been credited with curative, talismanic, and spiritual powers within Keralite Sunni Islam (Kuzhiyan, 2015). As suggested by its title, which literally means ‘The Abridged’ (Kuzhiyan, 2015), Shaikh Zainuddin’s Manqus Mawlid offers a cross-section of popular mawlid narratives in the Arab-Islamic tradition, written in Arabic with a high degree of literary ornamentation. The text alternates between passages of flowery rhymed prose and interludes of devotional poetry, effectively recreating the wonders surrounding the Prophet Muhammad’s birth.

The Manqus Mawlud begins with a rhymed prose passage exalting the Prophet’s pre-existence and the cosmic significance of his birth, describing how his light was created before the world and his arrival predetermined by God. The subsequent passages vividly recount the Prophet’s conception, Amina’s miraculous pregnancy, and the eventful birth accompanied by numerous wonders (Zainuddin Makhdum I, 2024). The narrative also includes the story of Halima, the Prophet’s wet nurse, and culminates in a tale of a dhimmi who, after initially despising the mawlid, dreams of the Prophet and embraces Islam with his family. The closing prayer of the Manqus Mawlud, often extended in collective recitations, beseeches divine blessings upon the Prophet and protection from all threats and diseases, specifically mentioning plague and other infectious diseases (Faizy, 2008). This pathological motif supports the tradition that Shaikh Zainuddin composed the Manqus Mawlud in response to a cholera epidemic in Ponnani, which ceased miraculously after the mawlid was recited, thereby earning its reputation as a cure for epidemics and chronic illnesses among the Mappilas (Faizy, 2008).

Conclusion: The Enduring Legacy of Mawlid Narratives

In conclusion, the Manqus Mawlud serves as a microcosm of important mawlid narratives, offering a distinct example from Kerala that is cherished by the Mappila community. This mawlid text, popular among Mappilas, encapsulates themes and stories that resonate across the Islamic world. Narratives and songs found in the Manqus, or versions thereof, can be identified in various mawlid texts globally. The typical Mappila prayer book, known as mawlid kitab or sabeena, often includes several mawlids, such as the popular Sharaf al-Anam, which share common themes about the pre-existence of the Prophet and the Light of Muhammad, the Prophet’s conception and Amina’s pregnancy, and the miracles accompanying his birth.

The Mappila tradition, with its unique historical and cultural context, has contributed richly to the tapestry of mawlid celebrations. The Manqus Mawlud, in particular, illustrates how local practices and narratives have been integrated into the broader Islamic devotional landscape. The pervasive similarity in mawlid texts underscores the idea that discussing mawlid narratives in isolation is somewhat misleading, as all mawlid texts are intertexts; they are both new and identical. Peter Burk’s observation about oral literary tradition aptly applies here: “…the same text is different, and different texts are the same” (Katz, 2007). This reflects the nature of mawlid narratives, where the same narrative can take on different forms in various renditions and performances, while different narratives often share common schemas, themes, and motifs (Faizy, 2008).

The Manqus Mawlud exemplifies this dynamic, demonstrating how the celebration of the Prophet’s birth and the associated devotional practices have been preserved and adapted across different Muslim cultures, creating a rich and cohesive tradition of veneration that transcends regional boundaries. The integration of the Manqus Mawlud into the Mappila tradition highlights the enduring appeal and spiritual significance of these narratives, ensuring their place in the collective religious life of Muslim communities worldwide.

References

• Eisenlohr, P. (2009). “Na’t: Media Contexts and Transnational Dimensions of a Devotional Practice.” In B. Metcalf (Ed.), Islam in South Asia in Practice (pp. 101-112). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
• Ernst, C. (2005). Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
• Faizy, M. (2008). “Muhyiddin Mala: Thaswavvufinte Kavyavishkaram (Muhyiddin Mala: Sufism Finds Poetic Expression).” In Z. Mandalamkunnu (Ed.), Muhyiddin Mala: Charithram, Padham, Padhanam (pp. 65-73). Thrissur: Kaizen Books.
• Hudawi, M. A. K. (2014a). “Praise Poetry, Keralite Tradition.” In C. Fitzpatrick & A. Walker (Eds.), Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (pp. 469-472). Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
• Hudawi, M. A. K. (2014b). “South Asian Devotional Music.” In C. Fitzpatrick & A. Walker (Eds.), Muhammad in History, Thought and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
• Kaptein, N. J. G. (1993). Muhammad’s Birthday Festival. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
• Katz, M. H. (2007). The Birth of the Prophet Muḥammad: Devotional Piety in Sunni Islam. London: Routledge.
• Kuzhiyan, M. A. R. (2015). Poetics of Piety: Genre, Devotion, and Self Fashioning in the Mappila Literary Culture of South India (Doctoral dissertation). Department of English Literature, School of Literary Studies, The English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad.
• Nadwi, B. (2006). “Ishqinte Makhdumian Bhavangal.” In Pravachaka Prakirthanam. Chemmad: Asas Book Cell.
• Stetkevych, S. (2010). The Mantle Odes: Arabic Praise Poems to the Prophet Muhammad. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
• Taymiyya, I. (1998). Iqtida al-Sirat al-Mustaqim lil-Mukhalafat Ashab al-Jahim (2 vols.). Riyadh: Dar al-Asima.
• Zainuddin Makhdum I. (2024). Manqus Mawlid: A Versified Translation of the Prophetic Eulogy (M. Mishap K., Trans.). Book Plus.