Malabar History journal

The roots of communalism in Malabar stretch back to the 16th century, coinciding with the Portuguese arrival on the west coast (Tharakan, 1987; Dale, 1975). Escalating tensions from political and religious postures burgeoned into full-scale religious conflicts during the 18th and 19th centuries (Miller, 1970). The agrarian structure favoring landlords known as Jenmis exacerbated the plight of Muslim peasants, culminating in uprisings such as the Moplah outbreaks in 1836 and 1921 (Bhaskar, 1989).

The British annexation into the Madras presidency fundamentally altered Malabar’s developmental trajectory, fostering direct interactions with British political institutions (Miller, 1970). The Jenmis, functioning as parasitic rent-receiving landlords, wielded control over a substantial portion of cultivated land, perpetuating an exploitative system (Bhaskar, 1989). Peasant uprisings, exemplified by the Moplah outbreaks, epitomized the deep-seated discontent with this socio-economic structure (Bhaskar, 1989).

The transformative catalyst occurred with the Moplah uprising of 1921, reshaping the political landscape (Oommen, 1995). The withdrawal of the Indian National Congress paved the way for the ascendancy of the Muslim League, strategically leveraging the alienation of Muslims from the British and Hindus to consolidate its support base (ibid). The subsequent formation of the state of Kerala in 1956 further empowered the Muslim League, solidifying its position as a significant communal party, notwithstanding its divisive nature (ibid). In essence, the communalisation of Malabar, intricately woven into its historical narrative, continues to exert a profound influence on community relations. The interplay of historical grievances, socio-economic imbalances, and political maneuverings underscores the complexities of this sociopolitical phenomenon, shaping the present and future trajectories of the coastal region.

Cow-Slaughter as a Communal Flashpoint

The communal landscape in coastal Malabar during the post-independence period was significantly marked by controversies surrounding cow-slaughter (Mathrubhoomi, 1952). In 1952, the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) strategically utilized the anti-cow slaughter movement to unite Hindus against perceived threats from Christian and Muslim communities. Coastal towns such as Ponnani, Kozhikode, Dharmadam, Thalassery, Payyannoor, and Guruvayoor witnessed heightened communal tensions over this issue.

The anti-cow slaughter propaganda led to a conflict in Payyoli in 1952, highlighting the deep communal fault lines in the region (Mathrubhoomi, 1952). The slogans of the RSS gained traction, even among the coastal communities, showcasing how communal discourses had permeated various segments of the population. The propaganda not only stirred religious sentiments but also contributed to the political mobilization of communities, further entrenching communal dynamics.

Religious Processions and Communal Identity

Religious processions before worship centers emerged as another significant theme in communal discourses, particularly in the post-independence period (FNR for the I half of August 1952). While ostensibly religious, these processions became avenues for articulating communal identities and sometimes resulted in conflicts. The interplay of different Hindu cultural organizations added another layer to the communalisation discourse, contributing to the consolidation of modern religious communities.

The rise of organizations like the Hindu Dharma Samrakshana Samiti showcased the conglomeration of various Hindu cultural organizations that made conversion and communal issues matters of concern among the general public (FNR for the II half of June 1952).

Resistance to Worshiping Centers and Inter-Community Conflicts

The communalisation discourse extended beyond mere discussions, manifesting in objections, complaints, and clashes over the construction of religious structures (Mathrubhoomi Daily, 1952). Instances in Kizhariyoor Amsom and Moonnupeedika, where objections were raised against the construction of Muslim worshipping centers, underscored the animosity between religious sections. These incidents were indicative of the resistance offered to the constructions of worshipping centers by other communities, reflecting the heightened communal tensions.

The communalisation of Malabar during this period had significant political ramifications, influencing leaders of secular political parties like K. I. Ibrahim and K. Kelappan (Mathrubhoomi, 1952). Simultaneously, communal organizations like the RSS and All India Muslim League gained political mileage, with their slogans being accepted even by coastal communities. The interplay of historical grievances, political strategies, and socio-economic factors continued to shape the trajectory of communalisation, warranting further exploration in understanding the complex dynamics of coastal Malabar during this epoch.

Communal Unrest: Payyoli (1952) – An Episode of Communalisation:

The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) commenced its operations in Malabar in 1943, actively engaging in anti-cow slaughter advocacy by 1952 (FNR for II half of June 1943; Mathrubhoomi Daily, 1952). Advocating for a legislative ban on cow slaughter, the RSS organized meetings led by prominent figures like V. K. Eradi, president of Divyajeevanasangham (Mathrubhoomi Daily, 1952). These gatherings proliferated in coastal areas, including Thalassery, Dharmmadam, Vatakara, Cheruvannor, Payyoli, Guruvayoor, among others (Mathrubhoomi 1952).

Payyoli, situated north of Calicut, emerged as a focal point for communal tensions on October 26, 1952, when Muslims slaughtered a calf near an anti-cow slaughter meeting organized by the RSS. This incident escalated into a clash, resulting in the murder of an individual by the Muslims (Mathrubhoomi Daily, 1st November 1952; FNR for II half of October 1952). Subsequently, strained relations extended to neighboring areas like Iringal, Ayanikkad, Meladi, Trikkottoor, involving Mukkuva fishers and Muslims in clashes (Mathrubhoomi Daily, 1952). Responding to the turmoil, two platoons of Malabar Special Police were dispatched, and arrests were made to contain the situation (Mathrubhoomi Daily, 1952). Post-incident, the RSS’s activities strengthened in Payyoli, with Hindu politicians capitalizing on the event, extending Hindu community sentiments to outlying sections, including scheduled castes (Mathrubhoomi Daily, 2nd February 1953; Mathrubhoomi Daily, 8th April 1953). The aftermath of the Payyoli incident echoed through the political landscape, leading to increased activity by the Muslim League in Malabar. Reports surfaced of Muslims establishing training centers to counter the RSS’s physical training, and the Muslim League initiated fundraising to defend Muslims accused in criminal cases stemming from the Payyoli incident (FNR for I half of November 1952; FNR for II fortnight of December 1952). This incident left a lasting impact, contributing to the communalization of Malabar, community consolidation, and deepening divisions (Mathrubhoomi Daily, 1954).

Manathala Incident:

The incidents at Manathala in 1959 and 1961, as well as the riot at Thalassery in 1971, highlight the deep-rooted communal tensions in the coastal areas of Kerala. In the Manathala conflicts, the demand by the Hindu section, led by the RSS, to lead a procession through the public road resulted in a law and order problem (Ramdas, 2009). The situation escalated when Muslims decided to lead a procession to Guruvayoor, a nearby Hindu temple, leading to the imposition of prohibitory orders in both Manathala and Guruvayoor. This unrest spread to other coastal areas, intensifying communal tensions across the state. The situation resurfaced in 1961 with a lathi charge inside the Manathala Mosque (ibid).

Riot in Thalassery:

The riot in Thalassery in 1971 was triggered by a dispute related to a Kalasam procession to the Muthappan Kavu temple. Fish workers and fish merchants from Thalayi and Dharmadam were implicated in the incident, with accusations and arrests involving individuals from Hindu and Muslim communities (Ramdas, 2009). The communalisation of the coastal area became evident as fishers of different communities were officially registered as Hindus, reflecting an increasing trend of polarization. The loyal relations between fishers and merchants may have played a role in their involvement in communal conflicts.

The communalisation of the Malabar Coast during the first two decades after independence is described as a process and product of communalisation, with specific developments in the coastal regions contributing to this phenomenon (ibid). These events are indicative of the complex interplay of communal identities, economic factors, and historical tensions that characterized the coastal life during this period.

Decline of Kadakkodis and Rise of Communitarian Institutions

The decline of Kadakkodis, traditional community-based institutions, and the concurrent rise of new communitarian institutions in the Malabar Coast, especially within the fishing community, represent intricate socio-economic transformations (Ramdas, 2009; Chekkutty, n.d). Rooted in British colonial efforts to modernize the fishing sector, which introduced new crafts and gears (ibid), this transformation aimed at developing merchant capital, sidelining indigenous fisher people engaged in traditional fishing and trade. The imposition of the salt tax further shifted dynamics, enabling non-fishermen traders to enter the domain.

The socio-economic changes ushered in by colonial authorities facilitated upward mobility for certain fisher folk, as Kadakkodi families sought employment in government posts (ibid). This era saw the emergence of indigenous capitalists, such as the Unichoyi family, contributing to economic diversification. The infusion of modern amenities like technology and education led to social diversification, giving rise to a non-fishing fisher group along the Malabar Coast.

The ambivalence and shifting social positions of Kadakkodi families, once integral to the fishing profession, became evident due to upward mobility (Ramdas, 2009). The imposition of a ban on sardine fishing in 1947 by colonial authorities through Kadakkodis highlighted the conflict between traditional practices and state policies. This ambivalence increased as the affluent section of the fishing population, particularly Kadakkodi families, distanced themselves from fishing professions.

Despite facing challenges in the post-independence period, including sea court difficulties in resolving boundary disputes and legal systems hesitating to recognize Kadakkodis as legitimate bodies, their decline paved the way for new communitarian institutions. The emergence of lateral organizations like the Dheevara Sabha in the 1960s, coupled with the decline of Kadakkodis, marked a significant shift in the management of coastal life, reflecting the intensity of mistrust and communalization during this period (Chekkutty, n.d).

In the post-independence period, technological modernization and structural changes brought forth new challenges for Kadakkodis (Ramdas, 2009). The challenges extended to encroachments, violations of traditional sanctions, and the upkeep of the status quo, presenting cumbersome issues for Kadakkodis.

Efforts to seek resolution through state systems proved to be largely ineffective (Ramdas, 2009).. The era witnessed caste and religious exclusivism, with the working class categorized into religious and community groups, underscoring the intensity of mistrust and communalization during this transformative period. The decline of Kadakkodis paved the way for the establishment of new institutions such as the Araya Samajam (AS) and the Mahallu Committee (MC), contributing to the regulation of coastal life (Ramdas, 2009).

Religious Exclusivism and Emergence of Communitarian Institutions

In the latter half of the 20th century, religious exclusivism became prominent, leading to the establishment of communitarian institutions like AS and MC (Ramdas, 2009; Chekkutty, n.d). The decline of Kadakkodis did not result in a direct takeover by these institutions but rather facilitated an experimental phase with platforms like the Council of Elders (CE) (ibid). The lateral unification of non-Muslim fisher communities under the banner of the All Kerala Dheevara Sabha weakened local arrangements like Kadakkodis. Incorporating this information into a broader discussion could involve examining the underlying causes of communalization, the impact on community relations, and the role of specific incidents in shaping the socio-political landscape of the Malabar Coast. Additionally, exploring the aftermath and long-term consequences of these communal tensions would provide a comprehensive understanding of the historical dynamics at play.

Conclusion

The Malabar Coast has experienced significant socio-political changes post-independence, marked by intricate communal dynamics rooted in religious and cultural identities (Oommen, 1995; Mathew, 1989; Chandra, 1984). Communalism, serving as both a political doctrine and a manifestation grounded in community sentiments, replaced national identity with religious affiliations (Dumont, 1970). Historical roots trace back to the 16th century, intensifying during Portuguese arrival and culminating in 18th-19th-century religious conflicts. The transformative catalyst occurred with the Moplah uprising of 1921, altering the political landscape and empowering the Muslim League (Oommen, 1995).

The post-independence period featured communal flashpoints, including the strategically employed anti-cow slaughter movement by the RSS, leading to heightened tensions and political mobilization (Mathrubhoomi, 1952; Dumont, 1970). Communal unrest, exemplified by the Payyoli incident in 1952, reverberated through the political landscape, empowering organizations like the RSS and Muslim League. Simultaneously, the decline of traditional institutions, Kadakkodis, and the rise of new communitarian entities reflect socio-economic transformations rooted in British colonial efforts (Ramdas, 2009). The interplay of communal identities, economic shifts, and historical tensions has shaped the trajectory of the Malabar Coast, underscoring the complexities of its socio-political landscape and providing crucial insights for understanding its present and future trajectories.

References

Bhaskar, M. (1987). ‘Social and Political Forces of Communialism in Kerala’. Social Scientist, 37(3), July-December.

Chandra, B. (1984). Communalism in Modern India. Vikas, New Delhi.

Dale, S. F. (1975). ‘The Mapilla Outbreaks: Ideology and Social Conflict in Nineteenth Century Kerala’. Journal of Asian Studies, 30(1).

Dumont, L. (1970). Religion, Politics and History of India. Mointon Publishers, Paris.

Fortnightly Reports (FNR) sent by the British Officials from Malabar District to the Madras Government: 1937-52.

John Oommen. (1995). Politics of Communalism in Kerala. Economic and Political Weekly, 30(11), 544–547. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4402494

Khan, R. (1989). ‘Secularisation Process in India: Problems and Prospects’ in Iqbal Narain (ed), Development, Politics and Social Theory. Sterling Publishers, New Delhi.

Mathew, G. (1989). Communal Road to Secular Kerala. Concept Publishing, New Delhi.

Mathrubhoomi, 1952, August 5.

Mathrubhoomi, 1952, August 13.

Mathrubhoomi, 1952, August 23.

Mathrubhoomi Daily, 1952, June 22.

Mathrubhoomi Daily, 1952, October 16.

Mathrubhoomi Daily, 1952, October 28.

Mathrubhoomi Daily, 1952, October 30.

Mathrubhoomi Daily, 1952, November 1.

Mathrubhoomi Daily, 1952, November 2.

Mathrubhoomi Daily, 1952, November 4.

Mathrubhoomi Daily, 1952, November 8.

Mathrubhoomi Daily, 1952, November 9.

Mathrubhoomi Daily, 1953, February 2.

Mathrubhoomi Daily, 1953, April 8.

Mathrubhoomi Daily, 1954, January 21.

Miller, R. E. (1970). Mappila Muslims of Kerala. Orient Longman, New Delhi.

N. P. Chekkutty. (n.d). “Communal strife in coastal regions, Coastal Tensions in Kerala: One”. chespeak.blogspot.com.

Ramdas, P. (2009). Socio-Economic Roots of Communalisation in Coastal Malabar (1950-2005). Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Calicut.

Tharakan, M. P. K. (1987). ‘Communal Influence in Politics: Historical Background Pertaining to Kerala’. Religion and Society, 34(1), March.